The Protestant Reformation of the 1500s began in Germany and Switzerland, and soon spread to many countries across Europe, particularly northern Europe. The German Reformation of Luther took root in parts of Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The Swiss Reformation of Zwingli and Calvin took root in Switzerland, the Netherlands and Scotland, as well as having a minority presence in France, Poland and Hungary. (England was a special case; the Church of England was in some ways like the Lutheran churches and in other ways more like the Swiss Reformed Churches.) The Radical Reformation or Anabaptists, a third arm of the Reformation, mainly thrived in Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands, and later Poland.
By the 1560s, the initial "fire" of the early years had cooled
down, and over the next 100 years or so, the various iterations of Protestant Christianity
solidified into new "orthodoxies" (rigid beliefs and
practices).
The period from 1580 until into the 1700s is known as the period of "Lutheran Orthodoxy". During this period, Lutheranism was defined as being not Roman Catholicism, not Reformed Christianity, and, of course, not Anabaptism. Johann Gerhard is considered the founder of Lutheran Scholasticism, a system of thought based on Aristotle, aiming to defend Lutheran faith vis-à-vis Roman Catholicism. One of the voices in favour of a more conciliatory approach ("syncretism") was Georg Calixtus (d. 1656). Another dimension to this period was the flowering of hymn-writing. Perhaps the greatest Lutheran hymnwriter of the time was Paul Gerhardt (d. 1676), who wrote hymns such as "O sacred head now wounded". Since the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, both Roman Catholicism and Lutheran Christianity had legal status, however incidents of religious intolerance led to the formation of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League - military alliances for the defence of their respective expressions of Christian faith. This led to the 30 years war which ran 1618 to 1648. What began as a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire (somewhat broader than modern-day Germany and Austria) eventually spread out to pit Catholic France supported by Sweden against Spain. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 recognised Dutch independence from Spain, and granted a greater international power for France, as well as granting limited toleration for Catholics, Lutherans and Reformed Christians.
Similar to the Lutheran Church was the Church of England (Anglican). This also retained many of the outward forms of medieval Christianity, such as clerical robes, altars, crosses and so on. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603), the Church of England was the national church and it was a matter of political loyalty to attend its services which were conducted following the Book of Prayer composed by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Some people in the Church of England called "Puritans" wanted a "purer" church without outward decorations and ceremonies. Others, called "Separatists" rejected the idea of a state church altogether, and from 1581 began independent churches in various places. The Puritan movement included many in the Church of England, but also Presbyterians and Independents, who all shared a vigorous Reformed faith with an emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit and the application of that faith in every sphere of life. Throughout the 1600s there was a big struggle as the kings of the royal house of the Stuarts sought to impose their rule and form of worship on all. The Archbishop of Canterbury at time, William Laud (d. 1645), advocated a "High Church" approach with ceremonies and decorations which appeared "Catholic" to others. This led to a civil war and to the execution of the king in 1649. When kings were reinstated with Charles II in 1660, he resumed persecution of the church. For example in 1662, two thousand pastors were forced to leave their charges rather than bow to the imposed form of worship. It was in 1689 that King William of Orange and Queen Anne came to power, and religious toleration was declared.
The Swiss Reformation of Zwingli and Calvin took root in Switzerland, in parts of Germany, in the Netherlands and in Scotland. Reformed Christianity was simpler (more austere) than Lutheran or Anglican churches. There were no decorations such as crosses or pictures and the church services focused more on the preaching of God's Word and prayers with singing but no musical instruments (a cappella singing). Communion was important but celebrated only a few times a year. There were various Reformed confessions summarising beliefs, such as the Helvetic Confession, the Belgic Confession, or the Scots Confession, and also catechisms which taught them to the people in an accessible way. A major theme in Reformed theology is the idea of "covenant"; Reformed theology sees a lot of continuity between the Old and the New Testament. One aspect of this is the practice of infant baptism, seen as a continuation of the practice of circumcision.
The cradle of Reformed Christianity was Switzerland, first centred in Zurich, but later Geneva was more significant. At Geneva the Turretin family became well-known theological thinkers. During the course of the 1600s, Geneva, influenced by teachings at Saumur in France (see below), moved towards a more rationalist approach to the Christian faith. The Helvetic Consensus of 1675 was an attempt to stem the tide, however in different places it was not enforced, and it fell into disuse.
A centre of the Reformed faith in Germany was Heidelberg, and it was here that the Heidelberg Catechism was penned in 1563. This area was later conquered by Catholic forces. In 1609 the ruler of Prussia became Reformed, and many reformed Christians moved there, although the local population remained largely Lutheran.
Scotland formally embraced the Reformed faith in 1560 under the leadership of John Knox. The "Kirk" became a central part of Scottish society, and produced many great preachers such as Robert Bruce (d. 1631) and Samuel Rutherford (d. 1661). When the Stuart kings tried to introduce Anglican worship in Scotland, this was fiercely resisted. During the 1600s many Scottish pastors and Christians suffered and were executed for their loyalty to Reformed Christianity, many as part of the Covenanter movement. The Reformed faith was central to everyday life in Scotland, and shaped the country in many ways, for example through schooling provided by the church (not universal until much later).
Another country where the Reformed faith thrived was the Netherlands, initially under Spanish control. In the 1500s, there were very large congregations at Antwerp and elsewhere (15000 people meeting outside in the fields). The Belgic Confession of 1561 was penned by Guido de Bres, who was martyred shortly thereafter. Persecution of Reformed Christians was one of the factors which led to the Dutch Revolt or "Eighty Years War", at the end of which the northern Netherlands was an independent country (the "United Provinces") with Reformed faith, while the southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium) retained Roman Catholic faith and remained under Spanish control. The university town of Leyden in the Netherlands became a centre for reformed theology. Reformed theology became very rigid and focused on issues such as the divine decrees (God's plans made before the creation of the world). As a result, in the Netherlands, Arminius began questioning some of the teachings, and advocated a different understanding based on conditional election which left room for individuals to chose or reject salvation. Arminius' teachings were rejected at the Synod of Dordt in 1619, nevertheless, his views are held to this day by Methodists, Pentecostals and others. In the 1600s many leading reformed thinkers were based in the Netherlands, such as Cocceius (redemption-historical approach), Voetius (systematic approach), and Witsius (who attempted to reconcile and synthesise the two). In church history terms, this time is known as the Nadere Reformatie (Further Reformation) influenced at least in part by the Puritan movement in Britain (see above). Politically, the period from 1588 until 1674 is known as the Dutch "Golden Age", when the newly independent United Provinces flourished economically and culturally, came to dominate European and international trade, and became a worldwide Empire, reaching east to Indonesia and west to the Caribbean.
A special case was France, which had a long history of Reformed Christians and which at one time might have become Protestant. However, French Reformed Christians, known as Huguenots, remained a minority; their places of worship were called "temples". Jean Calvin the leading Reformed at Geneva (Switzerland) was of French origin and trained lots of pastors for service in France. Later, the "school" (theological seminary) of Saumur, with lecturers such as Amyraut, became a centre for revising aspects of the Reformed faith. The tension between Catholic and Protestant in France led to massacres such as the 1572 St Bartholomew massacre, and to "wars of religion". A former Protestant-turned-Catholic became King Henry IV became king of France and declared freedom of religion in 1598. However, when he was assassinated in 1610, the tide turned. King Louis XIV reigned from 1638 to 1715 and he actively opposed the Huguenots, coercing them to attend Catholic mass and in some cases stationing soldiers in their houses. This time of persecution of the Huguenots in France is known as the "Desert". Eventually, in 1685, the freedoms for Protestants were withdrawn completely and many places of Protestant worship were destroyed. Many Huguenots emigrated to the Netherlands, Germany, Britain, Russia, and other places.
The third arm of the Reformation were the Radicals or Anabaptists. They did not believe in the baptism of infants, or a state church. Their congregations were made up of people who had consciously professed faith and been baptised. They did not believe in holding public office or serving in the army. There were many different kinds of Anabaptists, but many were evangelical in outlook, such as the Swiss Brethren and the Mennonites. Anabaptists spread across Switzerland, Austria, Moravia, Germany and the Netherlands. Mennonites enjoyed some rights in the Netherlands from 1572 onwards. From about 1530, many Anabaptists resettled from the Netherlands and Germany to near the Polish city of Gdansk and the nearby Vistula river delta, where for a time they were able to live in peace albeit without full rights as citizens. A key book for Mennonites is the Martyrs Mirror published in 1660 which details the martyrdom of many Anabaptists. The theological beliefs of Mennonites were codified in the 1632 Dordrecht Confession of Faith. [history of Anabaptists from 1530 to 1675???]
The independents in England and Wales (see above) may be considered another expression of the radical reformation. The independents are the ones who became the Congregational and Baptist churches. In the 1500s and 1600s, many of them took refuge in the Netherlands, where there was freedom of religion. One of these groups became the Pilgrim Fathers who sailed to America. Another group came into contact with the Anabaptists in the Netherlands and became the first Baptists. From 1647 until 1660 England and Scotland were ruled by Oliver Cromwell, an Independent Christian. During this time, non-Anglican expressions of the Christian faith, such as Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Baptists, grew in number and influence, in many case using the buildings of the national church. The monarchy was restored in 1660, and between then and the Act of Toleration in 1689, non-Anglican churches were persecuted. It was at this time that John Bunyan, author of "Pilgrim's Progress", spent 12 years in prison for unsanctioned preaching.
Comments
Post a Comment